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CHAPTER TWO
Institute of Christian Religion
AND
in and out of gENEVA
Eventually he made his way to Basel, then a Protestant city who welcomed
people who were still wavering. In Basel Calvin plunged into the systematic
study of theology. There he voraciously read the writings of Protestant
Reformers, most notably Luther, and the writings of the church fathers, like
Augustine. During these time he collected materials for his famous
publication.
In
March 1536, Calvin published the first Latin edition of his
Institutio Christianae Religionis or
Institutes of the Christian Religion
The word “institutes”
derives from the latin “Institution” which means instruction. The work,
written in Latin, published in Basel in March 1536 was with a preface
addressed to King Francis I of France, entreating him to give the
Protestants a hearing rather than continue to persecute them. In the
foreword to the French king François I, Epistle to the king, Calvin claimed
that the Protestants were good Christians who did not mean to contest the
King’s power.
Francis I (French:
François Ier) (12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547) was the first King of
France from the Angoulême branch of the House of Valois, reigning from 1515
until his death. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise
of Savoy. He succeeded his cousin and father-in-law Louis XII, who died
without a son.
A prodigious patron
of the arts, he initiated the French Renaissance by attracting many Italian
artists to work on the Château de Chambord, including Leonardo da Vinci, who
brought the Mona Lisa with him, which Francis had acquired. Francis' reign
saw important cultural changes with the rise of absolute monarchy in France,
the spread of humanism and Protestantism, and the beginning of French
exploration of the New World. Jacques Cartier and others claimed lands in
the Americas for France and paved the way for the expansion of the first
French colonial empire.
The first edition
comprised six
chapters in which Calvin reworked on Luther’s notion of free salvation, and
explained the main characteristics of the christian faith, i.e.
the ten commandments(the
decalogue ),
the creeds (the credo),
the Lord's Prayer (Our Father)
and
the sacraments of
which he accepted only two, as Luther did, namely
baptism and the Eucharist, as well as a chapter on Christian Liberty and
Political Theology.
In the more personal
last chapter “Christian freedom” Calvin dealt with the
city’s organization and
also split the civilian government in three parts :
The magistrate or civil authority, defender and keeper of the laws,
The law,
The people
governed by the laws and law abiding.
One exception to the
obedience to the magistrate was allowed when his legislation was against
God’s laws. Calvin advocated passive resistance.
Jean Calvin’s
Institutes was essentially a textbook for Christian education.
This was simply a
general summary of the Protestant theological position, in contrast to the
Roman Catholic Theology, and an expansion of Luther’s catechisms. The work
was an
apologia or
defense of his faith and a statement of the doctrinal position of the
reformers. He also intended it to serve as an elementary instruction book
for anyone interested in the reformation faith. . Calvin's teachings
emphasized the sovereignty of the scriptures and divine predestination—a
doctrine holding that God chooses those who will enter Heaven based His
omnipotence and grace. The book was the first expression of his theology.
Calvin updated the
work and published new editions throughout his life.
Soon after
publishing it, Calvin began his ministry in Geneva, Switzerland.In Basel in
1536 Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion, a six-chapter
catechism and he continuously revised it and the book grew to 80 chapters
by its final edition in 1559. It is widely regarded as the clearest, most
systematic treatise of the Reformation. Here is the description Given by the
translator Henry Beveridge (who died in 1929) which was first published in
1845.
================================>
Method and Arrangement,or Subject of the Whole Work
[From an Epitome of the Institutions, by Gaspar Olevian.]
http://www.reformed.org/master/index.html?mainframe=/books/institutes/
The subject handled
by the author of these Christian Institutes is twofold:
the former, the knowledge of God, which leads to a blessed immortality;
and the latter, (which is subordinate to the former,) the knowledge of
ourselves.
With this view the author simply adopts the arrangement of the Apostles'
Creed, as that with which all Christians are most familiar.
For as the Creed consists of four parts,
the first relating to God the Father,
the second to the Son,
the third to the Holy Spirit,
and the fourth to the Church,
so the author, in fulfilment of his task, divides his Institutes into four
parts, corresponding to those of the Creed. Each of these parts it will now
be proper to explain separately.
Title page from the
final edition of Calvin's
magnum opus,
Institutio Christiane Religionis,
which summarises his theology.
BOOK
I. THE
KNOWLEDGE OF GOD THE CREATOR.
The first statement in the Institutes acknowledges its central theme. It
states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts:
the knowledge of God and of ourselves.
Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can
it be discovered by observing this world. The only way to obtain it is to
study scripture. Calvin writes,
"For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and
Teacher."
He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it
as autopiston or self-authenticating.
He defends the trinitarian view of God and, in a strong polemical stand
against the Catholic Church, argues that images of God lead to idolatry.
At the end of the first book, he offers his views on providence, writing,
"By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his
Providence rules its individual Parts." Humans are unable to fully
comprehend why God performs any particular action, but whatever good or evil
people may practise, their efforts always result in the execution of God's
will and judgments
Contents
of Book 1.
1. The
Knowledge of God and That of Ourselves Are Connected. How They are
Interrelated.
2. What
it is to Know God, and to What Purpose the Knowledge of Him Tends.
3. The
Knowledge of God Has Been Naturally Implanted in the Minds of Men.
4. This
Knowledge is Either Smothered of Corrupted, Partly by Ignorance, Partly by
Malice.
5. The
Knowledge of God Shines Forth in the Fashioning of the Universe and the
Continuing Government of It.
6. Scripture
is Needed as Guide and Teacher for Anyone Who Would Come to God the Creator.
7. Scripture
Must Be Confirmed by the Witness of the Spirit. Thus May Its Authority Be
Established as Certain; and It is a Wicked Falsehood that Its Credibility
Depends on the Judgment of the Church.
8. So
Far as Human Reason Goes, Sufficiently Firm Proofs Are At Hand to Establish
the Credibility of Scripture.
9. Fanatics,
Abandoning Scripture and Flying Over to Revelation, Cast Down All the
Principles of Godliness.
10. Scripture,
to Correct All Superstition, Has Set the True God Alone Over Against All the
Gods of the Heathen.
11. It
is Unlawful to Attribute a Visible Form to God, and Generally Whoever Sets
Up Idols Revolts Against the True God.
12. How
God Is to Be So Distinguished from Idols that Perfect Honor May Be Given to
Him Alone.
13. In
Scripture, from the Creation Onward, We Are Taught One Essence of God, Which
Contains Three Persons.
14. Even
in the Creation of the Universe and of All Things, Scripture by Unmistakable
Marks Distinguishes the True God from False Gods.
15. Discussion
of Human Nature as Created, of the Faculties of the Soul, of the Image of
God, of Free Will, and of the Original Integrity of Man's Nature.
16. God
by His Power Nourishes and Maintains the World Created by Him, and Rules Its
Several Parts by His Providence.
17. How
We May Apply This Doctrine to Our Greatest Benefit.
18. God
So Uses the Works of the Ungodly, and So Bends Their Minds to Carry Out His
Judgments, that He Remains Pure from Every Stain.
BOOK II. THE
KNOWLEDGE OF GOD THE REDEEMER IN CHRIST,
FIRST DISCLOSED TO THE FATHERS UNDER THE LAW,
AND THEN TO US IN THE GOSPEL.
The second book includes several essays on original sin and the fall of man,
which directly refer to Augustine, who developed these doctrines. He often
cited the Church Fathers in order to defend the reformed cause against the
charge that the reformers were creating new theology.
In Calvin's view, sin began with the fall of Adam and propagated to all of
humanity. The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are
driven to evil. Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can
be found in Christ.
But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine, he described the special
situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the Old Testament. God
made a covenant with Abraham, promising the coming of Christ. Hence, the Old
Covenant was not in opposition to Christ, but was rather a continuation of
God's promise. Calvin then describes the New Covenant using the passage from
the Apostles' Creed that describes Christ's suffering under Pontius Pilate
and his return to judge the living and the dead. For Calvin, the whole
course of Christ's obedience to the Father removed the discord between
humanity and God.
Contents
of Book II
1. By
the Fall and Revolt of Adam the Whole Human Race Was Delivered to the Curse,
and Degenerated from Its Original Condition; the Doctrine of Original Sin.
2. Man
Has Now Been Deprived of Freedom of Choice and Bound Over to Miserable
Servitude.
3. Only
Damnable Things Come Forth from Man's Corrupt Nature.
4. How
God Works in Men's Hearts.
5. Refutation
of the Objections Commonly Put Forward in Defense of Free Will.
6. Fallen
Man Ought to Seek Redemption in Christ.
7. The
Law Was Given, Not to Restrain the Folk of the Old Covenant Under Itself,
but to Foster Hope of Salvation in Christ Until His Coming.
8. Explanation
of the Moral Law (the Ten Commandments).
9. Christ,
Although He Was Known to the Jews Under the Law, Was at Length Clearly
Revealed Only in the Gospel.
10. The
Similarity of the Old and New Testaments.
11. The
Difference Between the Two Testaments.
12. Christ
Had to Become Man in Order to Fulfill the Office of Mediator.
13. Christ
Assumed the True Substance of Human Flesh.
14. How
the Two Natures of the Mediator Make One Person.
15. To
Know the Purpose for Which Christ Was Sent by the Father, and What He
Conferred Upon Us, We Must Look Above All at Three Things in Him: the
Prophetic Office, Kingship, and Priesthood.
16. How
Christ Has Fulfilled the Function of Redeemer to Acquire Salvation for Us.
Here, Also, His Death and Resurrection Are Discussed, as Well as His Ascent
Into Heaven.
17. Christ
Rightly and Properly Said to Have Merited God's Grace and Salvation for Us.
BOOK III. THE
WAY IN WHICH WE RECEIVE THE GRACE OF CHRIST:
WHAT BENEFITS COME TO US FROM IT,
AND WHAT EFFECTS FOLLOW.
In
the third book, Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and
humanity is achieved.
He
first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ. The
immediate effects of faith are repentance and the remission of sin. This is
followed by spiritual regeneration, which returns the believer to the state
of holiness before Adam's transgression. Complete perfection is unattainable
in this life, and the believer should expect a continual struggle against
sin.
Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of justification by faith
alone. He defined justification as "the acceptance by which God regards us
as righteous whom he has received into grace." In this definition, it is
clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that
people play no role; God is completely sovereign in salvation.
Near the end of the book, Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of
predestination, a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the
teachings of Pelagius. Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian
tradition on this point included Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther, though
Calvin's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that
went before him. The principle, in Calvin's words, is that "All are not
created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to
eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or
other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to
death."
Contents of Book III
1. The
Things Spoken Concerning Christ Profit Us by the Secret Working of the
Spirit.
2. Faith:
Its Definition Set Forth, and Its Properties Explained.
3. Our
Regeneration by Faith: Repentance.
4. How
Far from the Purity of the Gospel Is All That the Sophists in Their Schools
Prate About Repentance; Discussion of Confession and Satisfaction.
5. The
Supplements That They Add to Satisfactions, Namely, Indulgences and
Purgatory.
6. The
Life of the Christian Man; and First, by What Arguments Scripture Urges Us
to It.
7. The
Sum of the Christian Life: The Denial of Ourselves.
8. Bearing
the Cross, a Part of Self-denial.
9. Meditation
on the Future Life.
10. How
We Must Use the Present Life and Its Helps.
11. Justification
by Faith: First the Definition of the Word and of the Matter.
12. We
Must Lift Up Our Minds to God's Judgment Seat that We May Be Firmly
Convinced of His Free Justification.
13. Two
Things to Be Noted in Free Justification.
14. The
Beginning of Justification and Its Continual Progress.
15. Boasting
About the Merits of Works Destroys Our Praise of God for Having Bestowed
Righteousness, as Well as Our Assurance of Salvation.
16. Refutation
of the False Accusations by Which the Papists Try to Cast Odium Upon This
Doctrine.
17. The
Agreement of the Promises of the Law and of the Gospel.
18. Works
Righteousness Is Wrongly Inferred from Reward.
19. Christian
Freedom.
20. Prayer,
Which is the Chief Exercise of Faith, and by Which We Daily Receive God's
Benefits.
21. Eternal
Election, by Which God Has Predestined Some to Salvation, Others to
Destruction.
22. Confirmation
of This Doctrine from Scriptural Testimonies.
23. Refutation
of the False Accusations with Which This Doctrine Has Always Been Unjustly
Burdened.
24. Election
Is Confirmed by God's Call; Moreover, the Wicked Bring Upon Themselves the
Just Destruction to Which They Are Destined.
25. The
Final Resurrection.
BOOK IV. THE
EXTERNAL MEANS OR AIDS BY WHICH GOD INVITES US INTO THE SOCIETY OF CHRIST
AND HOLDS US THEREIN.
THE MEANS OF GRACE
The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its
ministry, authority, and sacraments.
He denied the papal claim to primacy and the accusation that the reformers
were schismatic. For Calvin, the Church was defined as the body of believers
who placed Christ at its head. By definition, there was only one "catholic"
or "universal" Church. Hence, he argued that the reformers "had to leave
them in order that we might come to Christ."
The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from Ephesians, and
they consisted of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and doctors.
Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary, limited in their
existence to the time of the New Testament. The latter two offices were
established in the church in Geneva.
Although Calvin respected the work of the ecumenical councils, he considered
them to be subject to God's Word found in scripture. He also believed that
the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with
each other.
Contents of Book IV
1. Of
the true Church. Duty of cultivating unity with her, as the mother of all
the godly.
2. Comparison
between the false church and the true.
3. Of
the teachers and ministers of the Church. Their election and office.
4. Of
the state of the primitive Church, and the mode of government in use before
the papacy.
5. The
ancient form of government utterly corrupted by the tyranny of the papacy.
6. Of
the primacy of the Romish see.
7. Of
the beginning and rise of the Romish papacy till it attained a height by
which the liberty of the church was destroyed, and all true rule overthrown.
8. Of
the power of the church in articles of faith. The unbridled license of the
papal church in destroying purity of doctrine.
9. Of
councils and their authority.
10. Of
the power of making laws. The cruelty of the pope and his adherents, in this
respect, in tyrannically oppressing and destroying souls.
11. Of
the jurisdiction of the church and the abuses of it, as exemplified in the
papacy.
12. Of
the discipline of the Church, and its principal use in censures and
excommunication.
13. Of
vows. The miserable entanglements caused by vowing rashly.
14. Of
the sacraments.
15. Of
Baptism.
16. Paedobaptism.
Its accordance with the institution of Christ, and the nature of the sign.
17. Of
the Lord's Supper, and the benefits conferred by it.
18. Of
the Popish mass. How it not only profanes, but annihilates the Lord's
Supper.
19. Of
the five sacraments, falsely so called. Their spuriousness proved, and their
true character explained.
20. Of
civil government.
Such is the
arrangement of the Institutes which may be thus summed up: Man being at
first created upright, but afterwards being not partially but totally
ruined, finds his entire salvation out of himself in Christ, to whom being
united by the Holy Spirit freely given without any foresight of future
works, he thereby obtains a double blessing, viz., full imputation of
righteousness, which goes along with us even to the grave, and the
commencement of sanctification, which daily advances till at length it is
perfected in the day of regeneration or resurrection of the body, and this,
in order that the great mercy of God may be celebrated in the heavenly
mansions, throughout eternity.
You can read it in
pdf form at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.pdf?url=
“Published
first in 1536, the Institutes of the Christian Religion is Jonn Calvin's
magnum opus. Extremely important for the Protestant Reformation, the
Institutes has remained important for Protestant theology for almost five
centuries. Written to "aid those who desire to be instructed in the doctrine
of salvation," the Institutes, which follows the ordering ot the Apostle's
Creed, has tour parts.The first part examines God the Father; the second
part, the Son; the third part, the Holy Spirit; and the fourth part, the
Church. Through these tour parts, it explores both "knowledge ot God" and
"knowledge of ourselves" with profound theological insight, challenging and
informing all the while. Thus, tor either the recent convert or the
long-time believer, for the inquisitive beginner or the serious scholar,
John Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion won is a rewarding book
worthy of study.”
Further editions
The 1539 edition
comprised seventeen chapters in a quite different order. The first chapters
dealt with God, and Man. Whereas Luther’s mind was focused on Jesus Christ,
Calvin’s was on God. The Latin expression “soli deo gloria” (glory to God
alone) summed up his opinion. The following chapters dealt respectively with
faith, confession of faith, penitence, justification through faith, the
relation between the Old Testament and the New Testament, and
predestination-providence.
The predestination
doctrine is definitely linked to Calvin. However he did not invent it, but
found it in Saint Augustin’s texts. It cannot be separated from the notion
of free salvation. For Calvin if God alone controls salvation, he must be
the one who chooses the elect and the rejected. Calvin says that
predestination is a logical consequence of free salvation. It exemplifies
the priority of divine initiative.
The subsequent
chapters dealt with the sacraments. The Eucharist was controversial not only
with the Catholics, but among reformers. Luther and Zwingli had violent
arguments even though they both refused the catholic dogma of
transubstantiation.
Zwingli said that
Christ was spiritually present in the bread and wine in the Eucharist,
whereas Luther said Christ was actually present in the bread and wine.
Calvin rejected the Real presence of Christ in the bread and wine. He said
that Christ took part in this community meal through the faith of the
believers.
The last chapters
dealt respectively with Christian freedom, ecclesiastical power, civil
government and Christian life. Calvin differentiated ecclesiastical power
and government. He refused the meddling of magistrates with religious
debates. Contrary to a widespread opinion, Geneva was in no way a theocracy
in the XVIth century. But, thanks to Calvin, the church gained some autonomy
from the state, and this fact enabled him to continue despite the state’s
occasional hostility.
In « The Epistle to
the King » (l’Épître au roi), addressed to François Ier – to whom he had
dedicated “The Institutes of the Christian Religion” – Jean Calvin wrote:
A 1576 edition of
John Calvin's Institutio Christianae religionis (Institutes of the Christian
Religion).
The Newberry Library,
Gift of the McCormick Theological Seminary, 2008
"What is more proper to faith than that we should recognise ourselves naked
of all virtue in order to be clothed by God? Empty of all good, in order to
be filled by him? Enslaved to sin, in order to be freed by Him ? Blind, in
order to be enlightened by Him? Lame, in order to stand upright by Him?
Fools, in order to be upheld by Him? Deprived of all glory, so that He alone
may be glorified and we in Him?"
For the next three
years, Calvin lived in various places outside of France under various names.
He studied on his own, preached, and began work on his first edition of the
Institutes—an instant best seller.
A
summary of the different editions of the Institutes:
1536 – Latin (six chapters)
1539 – Latin (three times as long)
1541 – French
1543 – Latin (expanded)
1545 – French
1550 – Latin
1551 – French
1559 – Latin (final edition, 4 "books")
1560 – French
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Secretary to Princess Renée of France
Shortly after its
publication, he left Basel for Ferrara, Italy, where he briefly served as
secretary to Princess Renée of France. Renée of France, was the Duchess of
Ferrara due to her marriage to Ercole II d'Este, grandson of Pope Alexander
VI. She was the younger surviving child of Louis XII of France
Reform work commences (1536–1538)
By June he was back
in Paris with his brother Antoine, who was resolving their father's affairs.
Ending of Protestant Persecution :The Edict of Coucy of King Francis I of
France
King Francis I of
France issued the Edict of Coucy on July 16, 1535, ending the persecution of
Protestants that followed Nicolas Cop's speech on November 1, 1533 calling
for reform in the Catholic Church, and the provocative placards that were
posted almost a year later in Paris and elsewhere, attacking the Mass as a
blasphemy. Backed by the king, some dissenters were jailed, twenty-four were
executed, and over seventy fled, including Cop and his friend John Calvin.
The Edict of Coucy
freed all of the jailed, and offered amnesty to the exiles. The
"Sacramentarians", who held to Zwingli's view of the Eucharist (which had
appeared on the placards), were included only if they would repudiate their
anti-Romanist views. Francis sought by the edict to assuage the anger of
some German Protestant princes with whom he was attempting to form an
alliance, which ultimately failed. Even so, he extended pardon to the
Sacramentarians in 1536.
Following the Edict
of Coucy, which gave a limited six-month period for heretics to reconcile
with the Catholic faith, Calvin decided that there was no future for him in
France.
In August he set off
for Strasbourg, - a free city situated between France and Germany that had
declared itself Protestant.- a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire
and a refuge for reformers. Due to military manoeuvres of imperial and
French forces, he was forced to make a detour to the south, bringing him to
Geneva.
By 1536, Calvin had
disengaged himself from the Roman Catholic Church and made plans to
permanently leave France and go to Strasbourg. However, war had broken out
between Francis I and Charles V, so Calvin decided to make a one-night
detour to Geneva.
.
But Calvin’s fame in
Geneva preceded him. Farel, a local reformer, invited him to stay in Geneva
and threatened him with God’s anger if he did not. .
Calvin, who
reluctantly agreed to remain, later recounted:
“Then Farel, who was working with incredible zeal to promote the gospel,
bent all his efforts to keep me in the city. And when he realized that I was
determined to study in privacy in some obscure place, and saw that he gained
nothing by entreaty, he descended to cursing, and said that God would surely
curse my peace if I held back from giving help at a time of such great need.
Terrified by his words, and conscious of my own timidity and cowardice, I
gave up my journey and attempted to apply whatever gift I had in defense of
my faith”
By September 1536,
all necessary business addressed, Calvin took up residence in Geneva as a
‘Reader in Holy Scripture’. He received no pay until the following February.
Nevertheless, Calvin
quickly rose to prominence simply through his scholarship.
Soon after there was
dispute between the Roman Catholic and the evolving Protestant groups in
Lausanne. The debate was convened by the city to help the citizens
determine in which direction the city would move. Peter Viret, a Protestan
presented the subjet of debate and the debate went on for three whole days
which brought in several scholars of the city from both side. Calvin was on
the audience and did not got himself involved. On the fourth day one Roman
Catholic priest presented the doctrine of the bodily presence of Christ in
the elements of the Mass, and how these common material elements of bread
and wine are turned into the flesh and blood of Jesus himself during the
sacrament. This was one of the main arguments which was opposed by the
reformers. At the end of the presentation, Calvin rose on his feet and
gave a detailed argument against it, even though he was not prepared for it.
These arguments based on earlly fathers and the scripture was so immpressed
those who heard him that a Franciscan friar stood, and on the spot denounced
his own errors, renounced his monastic vows, and pronounced himself
determined to follow Christ and his pure doctrine. Even the Catholic priest
who presented and initiated the debate was converted. The city voted for
the reform stand.
Calvin accepted his
new role without any preconditions on his tasks or duties. He was
eventually given the title of "reader", which most likely meant that he
could give expository lectures on the Bible. Sometime in 1537 he was
selected to be a "pastor" although he never received any pastoral
consecration. For the first time, the lawyer-theologian took up pastoral
duties such as baptisms, weddings, and church services.
The reformers often
reached the extent of enforcement to rediculous levels as in enforcing a
confession of faith to be signed by all the citizens.
During late 1536,
Farel drafted a confession of faith, and Calvin wrote separate articles on
reorganizing the church in Geneva. On 16 January 1537, Farel and Calvin
presented their
Articles concernant l'organisation de l'église et du culte à Genève (Articles
on the Organization of the Church and its Worship at Geneva) to the city
council. The document described the manner and frequency of their
celebrations of the Eucharist, the reason for, and the method of,
excommunication, the requirement to subscribe to the confession of faith,
the use of congregational singing in the liturgy, and the revision of
marriage laws. The council accepted the document on the same day.
In May 1536 the city
adopted religious reform:
monasteries were dissolved
Mass was abolished
Papal authority renounced
IN September, 1536,
many of the principal citizens, accompanied by great numbers of the lower
classes, had demanded an audience of the council; before whom they protested
that they could not endure the reproofs of the ministers, and that they
wished to live in freedom.
The confession
already mentioned, as drawn up by Farel and Calvin, was printed and
distributed in the spring of 1537: yet it did not seem to produce much
impression, and was ill received on all sides. Very few returned the
confession signed individually as required.
The article
respecting excommunication, which put a great deal of power into the hands
of the ministers, by enabling them to exclude the refractory from the
sacrament, was particularly obnoxious.
Far from giving way,
however, the ministers pressed upon the government the necessity of
establishing still more stringent rules for the maintenance of religion; and
unless this were done, Calvin, who was bound to the city by no particular
ties, threatened to leave Geneva.
The oath taken by the
people towards the close of the previous year to observe the confession had
been administered collectively; but now Calvin and his colleagues succeeded
in persuading the government that it should he offered to them individually.
This ceremony
accordingly took place in St. Peter's church, on Sunday the 29th of July,
1537, and following days. After a sermon by Farel, the town secretary
mounted the pulpit, and read the confession. After that the people were
brought up by tens, and sworn to the observance and made to sign the
confession. However the people soon rose against it. Many, however,
especially among the leading people, refused compliance with what cannot be
designated otherwise than as an act of ecclesiastical tyranny. The council,
however, were so devoted to the ministers, that at their instance they
ordered the disaffected to leave the city. But they were too numerous to
allow of this measure being carried into effect; and the show of such an
inclination, without the power of enforcing it, only rendered the
malcontents more violent.
The opposition to
these forcing of reform within matters connected to religious faith
increased continuously. By degrees their number of supporters increased.
Many of those who had sworn to the confession began to join them, and
complained that they had been compelled to perjure themselves. They soon
began to assume the shape of an organized party, calling themselves
"Brothers in Christ," and wearing green flowers as a badge. By February,
1538, they had increased so much, that at the annual election of syndics
they got four of their people elected to that office.
This resistance to
religious and moral reform within Geneva, continued almost until Calvin’s
death. The resistance was all the more serious because the town council in
Geneva, as in other Protestant towns, exercised ultimate control over the
church and the ministers,and even over all French refugees. The main issue
was the right of excommunication, which the ministers regarded as essential
to their authority but which the council refused to concede.
The council was
reluctant to enforce the subscription requirement, as only a few citizens
had subscribed to their confession of faith. On 26 November, the two
ministers hotly debated the council over the issue. Furthermore, France was
taking an interest in forming an alliance with Geneva and as the two
ministers were Frenchmen, councillors had begun to question their loyalty.
Finally, a major ecclesiastical-political quarrel developed when the city of
Bern, Geneva's ally in the reformation of the Swiss churches, proposed to
introduce uniformity in the church ceremonies. The major contention between
Lutherans and the Calvinists were four, viz., to baptise at the font, to use
unleavened bread in our Lord's Supper, and to observe the four festivals. .
The council ordered
Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for the Easter Eucharist which was
to fall immediately within a few days. In protest, they refused to
administer communion during the Easter service. This caused a riot during
the service and the next day, the council told Farel and Calvin to leave
Geneva. Thus the uncompromising attitudes of Calvin and Farel finally
resulted in their expulsion from Geneva in May 1538. They were given three
days to leave Geneva.
Farell and Calvin received the news with great composure. “Very well,” said
Calvin, “it is better to serve God than man. If we had sought to please men,
we should have been badly rewarded, but we serve a higher Master, who will
not withhold from us his reward.” Calvin even rejoiced at the result more
than seemed proper.
The people celebrated the downfall of the clerical régime with public
rejoicings. The decrees of the synod of Lausanne were published by sound of
trumpets. The baptismal fonts were re-erected, and the communion
administered on the following Sunday with unleavened bread.
The synod of Zurich
The synod of Zurich, which had been fixed for the 29th of April, was now on
the point of assembling, and thither Calvin and Farel bent their steps. The
proper object of this meeting was to effect a union with Luther. It was
attended by the deputies of the Reformed cantons of Switzerland.
Calvin had drawn up in Latin, in fourteen heads, as the basis on which he
and Farel were willing to accommodate matters. In this paper the disputed
points were conceded, but with some trifling modifications.
In this paper the disputed points were conceded, but with some trifling
modifications, as will be seen from the following account of the substance
of it:
1. Fonts are admitted, provided baptism be administered during church hours,
and that the service be recited from the pulpit.
2. Also the use of unleavened bread, provided it be broken.
3. The four festivals observed at Berne are allowed, provided they be not
too strictly enforced, and that they who wished might go to work after
prayers.
4. The Bernese were to acknowledge that they did not find fault with the
method hitherto used at Geneva as contrary to Scripture, but that their sole
view was unity in ceremonies
5. If the Genevese ministers were restored, they were to be allowed to
exculpate (show that they were not guilty) themselves.
6. Calvin's scheme of church discipline was to be established.
7. The city was to be divided into parishes.
8. Sufficient ministers were to be chosen to serve the different districts.
9. The German method of excommunication was to be adopted; viz., the council
was to choose from each parish certain worthy and discreet men, who were to
exercise that power in conjunction with the ministers.
10. That the ordination of priests, by imposition of hands, was to be left
entirely to the clergy.
11. That the Bernese were to be requested to come to an accommodation with
them on two other points, viz.,
12. First, that the Lord's Supper should be more frequently celebrated, and
at least once a month. 13. Second, that psalm-singing should form part of
divine service.
14. That the Bernese should prohibit obscene songs and dancing, as their
example was always pleaded by the Genevese in excuse.
The synod admitted the importance of these articles, and considered them a
proof that the Genevese ministers were not actuated solely by obstinacy; but
at the same time recommended moderation to them, and christian mildness in
their dealings with a rude and uneducated people.
Calvin and Farel now returned to Berne, bearing with them several letters of
recommendation, both public and private.
  
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